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4D Printing Technology

Principles, Materials and Applications

Edited by Bijaya Bikram Samal, Cheruvu Siva Kumar and Shailendra Kumar Varshney
Series: Advances in Additive Manufacturing Technologies
Copyright: 2025   |   Expected Pub Date:2025/06/30
ISBN: 9781394212583  |  Hardcover  |  
368 pages

One Line Description
The book serves as a comprehensive guide to 4D printing technology, exploring its
principles, materials, and applications while offering valuable insights for
researchers, engineers, and innovators in additive manufacturing.

Audience
Manufacturing engineers, materials scientists, additive manufacturing specialists in all industries, academics, and researchers in advanced materials, biomedical engineering, photonics, and nanotechnology.

Description
4D Printing Technology: Principles Materials, and Applications is a detailed exploration of 4D printing technology, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of how smart materials and additive manufacturing processes come together to create dynamic, responsive structures. Starting with the foundations of additive manufacturing, this volume introduces readers to the rise of smart materials and the evolution from static 3D printing to adaptive 4D printing. It covers a wide range of topics, including 4D printing at the micro and nano scale, the use of polymers and reinforced materials, and advanced applications in photonics. The volume delves into complex programming of 4D printed materials, discussing various stimuli (thermal, magnetic, light-based) that enable shape-shifting behavior. Each chapter focuses on practical applications, including healthcare innovations like adaptive implants, aerospace components that morph based on environmental conditions, and novel photonic devices. Finally, the book discusses key characterization techniques necessary for analyzing the performance and durability of 4D printed parts. 4D Printing Technology: Principles Materials, and Applications serves as a comprehensive reference and an inspiration for future innovations in this rapidly evolving field.
Readers will find the book
• Comprehensively covers 4D printing technologies, from foundational principles to advanced applications in photonics, robotics, and micro/nano devices;
• Includes contributions from international experts in smart materials, advanced manufacturing techniques, and application-specific innovations;
• Covers important research developments in this field from the last decade;
• Provides detailed discussions on materials, shape programming, and characterization techniques for 4D printed structures;
• Examines various applications, future directions, and innovations in 4D printing, smart materials, and additive manufacturing technologies.

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Author / Editor Details
Bijaya Bikram Samal, PhD, is a pioneering researcher in 4D printing at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He was the first in India to initiate groundbreaking research in 4D printing technology and gained international recognition for creating the world’s strongest 4D printed part. He is a fellow of the Bose Science Society, chartered engineer for the Institute of Engineers, and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education.

Cheruvu Siva Kumar, PhD, is a professor of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. His post-doctoral research was conducted as a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. He has over 100 publications, ten patents, and serves as an expert panelist for government projects. His research interests include additive manufacturing, robotics, and computer networks.

Shailendra Kumar Varshney, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He has received numerous prestigious fellowships, including a University Grant Commission Council of Scientific and Industrial Research fellowship from India, a Monbukagakusho and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science fellowship from Japan, and the Alexander von Humboldt fellowship from Germany. His research focuses on on-chip photonic components, nonlinear photonics, and quantum photonics.

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Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
1. Importance of Additive Manufacturing in the Era of Industry 4.0
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Abhishek Kumar, Anita Jena, Debadutta Mishra, Shailendra Kumar Varshney, Ashish Kumar Nath and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Additive Manufacturing as an Enabler of Industry 4.0
1.3 Synergies Between Additive Manufacturing and Digital Technologies
1.3.1 Flexibility and Customization
1.3.2 Decentralized Manufacturing and Localized Production
1.3.3 Sustainability and Environmental Impact
1.3.4 Continuous Innovation through Iterative Design
1.4 Integration of AM with Digital Twins and Simulation
1.4.1 Role of Digital Twins in Manufacturing
1.4.2 Simulation Technologies Enhancing AM Integration
1.4.3 Real-Time Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance
1.5 Applications Across Industries
1.5.1 Automotive Lightweighting for Fuel Efficiency
1.5.2 Healthcare Customized Medical Implants
1.5.3 Consumer Electronics Prototyping
1.5.4 Aerospace and Defense: Complex Component Manufacturing
1.5.5 Biotechnology: Bioprinting and Tissue Engineering
1.5.6 Automotive and Transportation: Short-Run Production and Prototyping
1.5.7 Consumer Goods: Customized Consumer Products
1.5.8 Energy Sector: Efficient Component Manufacturing
1.5.9 Construction: Customized Architectural Components
1.5.10 Marine: Lightweight and Durable Ship Components
1.5.11 Sports Equipment: Tailored Performance Gear
1.5.12 Electronics: Miniaturized and Efficient Circuitry
1.6 Challenges and Opportunities
1.6.1 Technical Challenges in Integration
1.6.2 Adoption Barriers and Industry Transition
1.6.3 Opportunities for Research and Innovation
1.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
2. Additive Manufacturing Processing and Techniques: Focusing on Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) and Its Various Post Processing Technologies
Abhishek Kumar, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Ashish Kumar Nath, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Additive Manufacturing
2.2.1 Material Classification
2.2.2 Energy Source Classification
2.2.3 Process Type Classification
2.2.4 Application Classification
2.3 LPBF
2.3.1 L-PBF Process Details
2.3.2 Process Parameters
2.3.3 Surface Roughness and Morphology of L-PBF
2.3.4 Metallurgical Aspects and Mechanical Properties of L-PBF Parts
2.4 Post Processing of Additive Manufactured Parts
2.4.1 Powder Removal, Recycling and Conditioning
2.4.2 Part Removal and Postprocessing for Machining Operations
2.4.3 Finishing of Part for Improved Surface Finish and Aesthetic
2.4.3.1 Mechanical Surface Post-Processing
2.4.3.2 Chemical Treatments and Electrochemical Surface Modification
2.4.3.3 Laser-Based Surface Polishing
2.4.3.4 Surface Coating
2.4.3.5 Heat Treatment
2.4.3.6 Polishing
2.4.3.7 Laser Polishing
2.4.3.8 Mechanism of Laser Polishing
2.4.3.9 Type of Laser Polishing
2.4.3.10 Advantage, Limitation and Application of Laser Polishing
2.5 Surface Metrology and Characterization
2.5.1 Surface Integrity and Topography
2.5.2 Surface Texture
2.5.2.1 Form
2.5.2.2 Waviness
2.5.2.3 Roughness
2.5.2.4 Micro Roughness
2.5.2.5 Filtering
2.5.3 Surface Texture Parameters
2.5.4 Significance of L-PBF Surface Roughness for Various Applications
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
3. The Rise of Smart Materials: Recent Developments
Mariel Amparo Fernandez Aramayo, Mohd Rehan, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Cheruvu Siva Kumar and Shailendra Kumar Varshney
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Importance of Smart Materials in 4D Printing
3.3 Types of Smart Materials
3.3.1 Shape Memory Materials
3.3.1.1 Concepts of Shape Memory Effects
3.3.1.2 Shape Memory Polymers
3.3.1.3 Shape Memory Alloys
3.3.2 Piezoelectric Materials
3.3.3 Magnetostrictive Materials
3.3.4 Thermoresponsive Materials
3.3.5 Photo Responsive Materials
3.3.6 Chromoactive Materials
3.3.7 Rheological Fluids
3.3.8 Self-Healing Materials
3.3.9 Hydrogels
3.3.10 Liquid Crystal Elastomers (LCEs)
3.4 Conclusion
References
4. From 3D Printing to 4D Printing: Adding Time Dimension
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Debadutta Mishra, Marwan Nafea, Anita Jena, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Additive Manufacturing Evolution
4.2.1 Historical Overview of 3D Printing Technology
4.3 A Decade of 4D Printing (2013-2023)
4.4 Understanding the Fourth Dimension: Time in Printing
4.4.1 Conceptualization of Time as a Dimension in Additive Manufacturing
4.5 Laws of 4D Printing
4.6 Challenges and Opportunities in the Transition to 4D Printing from 3D
4.6.1 Material Limitations and Compatibility Issues in 4D Printing
4.6.2 Scalability and Cost Considerations for 4D Printing Technologies
4.6.3 Regulatory Hurdles and Safety Concerns in Implementing 4D Printing
4.7 Future Directions and Emerging Trends in 4D Printing
4.7.1 Development of New Smart Materials
4.7.2 Integration with Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
4.7.3 Biomedical Applications
4.7.4 Sustainable and Regenerative Manufacturing
4.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
5. 4D Printing of Polymers
Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda
5.1 Introduction to 4D Printing Techniques of Polymers
5.2 4D Printing Technologies
5.2.1 Stereolithography
5.2.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
5.3 Extrusion 3D Printing
5.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
5.4 Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM) or Direct Ink Writing (DIW)
5.5 Binder Jetting
5.5.1 Inkjet Printing
5.5.2 Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP)
5.6 4D Printing of SMPs and Materials
5.6.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL) Based Polymers
5.6.2 Polyurethane (PU)
5.6.3 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
5.6.4 4D Hydrogels
5.7 4D Printing of Two-Way SMPs
5.8 Applications of SMPs
5.9 Summary & Future Scope
References
6. Polymer Blends and Reinforcements in 4D Printing
Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra, G. Naga Mallikarjun Rao and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Polymer Blends
6.2.1 Miscible Polymer Blends
6.2.2 Immiscible Polymer Blends
6.2.3 Compatibility for Miscible Polymer Blends
6.3 Shape Memory Polymer Blends
6.3.1 Blending of SMP/Conventional Polymers
6.3.2 SMP Blends of Crystalline and Amorphous Polymers
6.3.3 SMP Blends by Combining Crystalline Polymer with Crystalline Polymer
6.3.4 SMP Blends by Combining Elastomer with Crystalline or Amorphous Polymer
6.3.5 SMPs Created by Blending and Radiation Crosslinking
6.4 Reinforcements in 4D Printing
6.4.1 Fiber Reinforcements
6.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) or Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs)
6.4.3 Graphene Reinforcements
6.4.4 Carbon Black Reinforcements
6.4.5 Nano Clay Reinforcements
6.4.6 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
6.4.7 Thermo-Responsive Nanoparticles
6.4.8 Photo-Curable Nanoparticles
6.4.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles
6.5 Applications of Blended and Reinforced SMPs in 4D Printing
6.6 Characteristics of 4D Printed Polymer Blends and Nanocomposites
6.7 Summary and Future Scope
6.8 Challenges
6.9 Future Prospects
References
7. 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale: Technologies, Challenges, and Applications
Kaustav Moni Bora, Anita Jena, Ujjal Dey, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu SivaKumar
Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale
7.2 Materials
7.3 Micro-Nano Scale 4D Printing Processes
7.3.1 Two-Photon Lithography/3D Printing by Direct Laser Writing
7.3.2 Micro Laser Sintering
7.3.3 Micro Stereolithography
7.3.4 Ink Based AM
7.3.5 Beam Deposition
7.3.6 Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)
7.4 Applications of 4D Printing
7.4.1 Structural Components
7.4.2 Robotics
7.4.3 Biomedical and Tissue Engineering
7.4.4 Electronic Devices and Absorbers
7.5 Challenges in 4D Printing Technology
7.6 Future Scope of 4D Printing
7.7 Conclusion
References
8. Characterization Techniques for Four Dimensional (4D) Printed Parts
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Bharat Charan Goud Marupalli, Pranabjyoti Talukdar, Anita Jena, Roja Rani Korrayi, Tapasendra Adhikary, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Characterization Techniques Overview
8.2.1 Introduction to Characterization and its Importance for 4D Printing
8.2.2 Characterization Strategies for Ensuring Quality in Additive Manufacturing and 4D Printing
8.3 Mechanical Characterization
8.3.1 Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Testing
8.3.2 Fatigue and Impact Testing
8.4 Thermal Characterization
8.4.1 Evaluation of Thermal Properties
8.4.2 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity in Printed Parts
8.4.3 Heat Resistance Testing for Various Printing Materials
8.4.4 Impact of Layering on Thermal Performance
8.5 Surface Finish and Roughness
8.5.1 Assessing Surface Quality
8.5.2 Quantitative Analysis of Surface Finish
8.5.3 Visual Inspection Techniques
8.5.4 Importance of Post-Processing
8.5.5 Role of Post-Processing in Achieving Desired Surface Finishes
8.6 Microstructure Analysis
8.6.1 Microscopic Examination
8.6.2 Techniques for Microstructure Analysis
8.6.3 Printing Parameter Influence
8.7 Dimensional Accuracy and Precision
8.7.1 Assessing Accuracy and Precision
8.7.2 Measurement Techniques for Dimensional Accuracy
8.7.3 Precision Considerations in Layered Manufacturing
8.8 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
8.8.1 Introduction to NDT Techniques
8.8.2 Overview of Non-Destructive Testing Methods
8.8.3 NDT Suitability for Layered Structures
8.8.4 Techniques for Identifying Defects in 3D and 4D Prints
8.9 Conclusions
References
9. 4D Printing Applications in Photonics
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Shubhanshi Sharma, Monica Pradhan and Shailendra K. Varshney
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Smart Materials in Photonics
9.2.1 Piezoelectric Materials
9.2.2 Thermo-Responsive Materials
9.2.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials
9.2.4 Photoresponsive Materials
9.2.5 Hygroscopic Materials
9.2.6 Electroactive Materials
9.3 4D Printing Processes in Photonics
9.3.1 Liquid-Based
9.3.1.1 Molten
9.3.1.2 Polymerization
9.3.2 Solid Based
9.3.2.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
9.3.2.2 Powder Bed Fusion
9.3.2.3 Direct Energy Deposition
9.3.2.4 Binder Jetting
9.4 4D Printed Optical Components and Their Applications in Optics and Photonics
9.4.1 4D Printed Fibers
9.4.2 4D Printed Optical Resonators
9.4.3 Structural Color Generation and Anticounterfeiting
9.4.4 Infrared Detector
9.4.5 Sensors and Actuators
9.5 Future of 4D Printed Photonics and Emerging Novel Applications
9.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
10. Methods, Materials, Shape Programming, and Applications of 4D Printing
Jian Ming Lee, Jie Wei Chee, Joel Zi Xu Wong, Li Yang Foong and Marwan Nafea
10.1 Introduction
10.2 4D Printing Methods
10.2.1 Material Extrusion (MEX)
10.2.2 Vat Photopolymerization (VPP)
10.2.3 Material Jetting (MJT)
10.2.4 Binder Jetting (BJT)
10.2.5 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
10.2.6 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
10.2.7 Sheet Lamination (SHL)
10.3 4D Printing Materials
10.3.1 Thermo-Responsive Materials
10.3.2 Electro-Responsive Materials
10.3.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials
10.3.4 Water-Responsive Materials
10.3.5 pH-Responsive Materials
10.3.6 Photo-Responsive Materials
10.3.7 Piezoelectric Materials
10.4 Shape Programming
10.5 Applications of 4D Printing
10.5.1 Electronics Applications
10.5.2 Biomedical Applications
10.5.3 Origami Applications
10.5.4 Robotics Applications
10.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Index

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