The Greening of Petroleum Operations
 | By M. R. Islam, M. M. Khan and A. B. Chhetri Copyright: 2010 | Status: Published ISBN: 9780470625903 | Hardcover | 1 lb 850 pages Price: $225 USD  |
Short Description
This state-of-the-art text covers some of the most hot-button issues in the energy industry, covering new, greener processes for engineers, scientists, and students to move petroleum operations closer to sustainability.
Audience
Engineers and scientists in the petroleum industry, such as petroleum, drilling, and reservoir engineers, production engineers, geologists, and petrophysicists
Engineers and scientists in the petroleum industry, such as petroleum, drilling, and reservoir engineers, production engineers, geologists, and petrophysicists
Description
This book unravels the mysteries of the current energy crisis and argues that solutions to global warming will come only from the development of new technologies. Discussed here are the reasons why petroleum operations, as they are now, are not sustainable, how each practice treads an inherently implosive path, and how each spells irreversible damage to the planet's ecosystem. Fossil fuel consumption is not the culprit, but, rather, the practices involved from exploration to refining and processing are responsible for the current damage to the environment. Focusing on long-term solutions that should "green" all of the petroleum industry's practices, the book follows the theory of inherent sustainability, showing why current practices are fundamentally flawed and why new proposals to salvage efficiencies offer little hope for remedying the situation. The authors discuss global warming and its apparent relationship with petroleum operations, providing a detailed analysis of greenhouse gas emission ranging from pre-industrial and industrial ages to the golden petroleum era. A newly developed theory is included which shows that carbon dioxides from some sources do not contribute to global warming. Here - for the first time - carbon dioxide is characterized based on various criteria such as the origin, the path it travels, isotope numbers and age of the fuel source from which it is emitted. This book offers unique solutions to overcome major obstacles by developing genuinely green technologies that satisfy the new sustainability criteria, are highly efficient, and produce zero waste. Various energy technologies are ranked based on their global efficiency in this book, and it also compares petroleum operations with other energy development technologies, including solar and biofuel energy systems.
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This book unravels the mysteries of the current energy crisis and argues that solutions to global warming will come only from the development of new technologies. Discussed here are the reasons why petroleum operations, as they are now, are not sustainable, how each practice treads an inherently implosive path, and how each spells irreversible damage to the planet's ecosystem. Fossil fuel consumption is not the culprit, but, rather, the practices involved from exploration to refining and processing are responsible for the current damage to the environment. Focusing on long-term solutions that should "green" all of the petroleum industry's practices, the book follows the theory of inherent sustainability, showing why current practices are fundamentally flawed and why new proposals to salvage efficiencies offer little hope for remedying the situation. The authors discuss global warming and its apparent relationship with petroleum operations, providing a detailed analysis of greenhouse gas emission ranging from pre-industrial and industrial ages to the golden petroleum era. A newly developed theory is included which shows that carbon dioxides from some sources do not contribute to global warming. Here - for the first time - carbon dioxide is characterized based on various criteria such as the origin, the path it travels, isotope numbers and age of the fuel source from which it is emitted. This book offers unique solutions to overcome major obstacles by developing genuinely green technologies that satisfy the new sustainability criteria, are highly efficient, and produce zero waste. Various energy technologies are ranked based on their global efficiency in this book, and it also compares petroleum operations with other energy development technologies, including solar and biofuel energy systems.
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Author / Editor Details
M. R. Islam is Professor of Petroleum Engineering at the Civil and Resource Engineering Department of Dalhousie University, Canada. He has over 700 publications to his credit, including 6 books. He is on the editorial boards of several scholarly journals, and, in addition to his teaching duties, he is also director of Emertec Research and Development Ltd. and has been on the boards of a number of companies in North America and overseas.
M. R. Islam is Professor of Petroleum Engineering at the Civil and Resource Engineering Department of Dalhousie University, Canada. He has over 700 publications to his credit, including 6 books. He is on the editorial boards of several scholarly journals, and, in addition to his teaching duties, he is also director of Emertec Research and Development Ltd. and has been on the boards of a number of companies in North America and overseas.
M. M. Khan has recently been a lecturer in chemical engineering at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, before moving to Canada. He has written a dozen papers and co-authored a book on zero-waste engineering and sustainable technology.
A. B. Chhetri is a Carbon and Energy Analyst with Golder Associates Ltd. in Victoria, B.C. Canada where he delivers consulting services in carbon and energy management. He has over 12 years of experience in energy development and management.
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Table of Contents
Foreword xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Science of Change: How Will Our Epoch Be Remembered? 1 1.2 Are Natural Resources Finite and Human Needs Infinite? 2 1.3 The Standard of Sustainable Engineering 4 1.4 Can Nature Be Treated as If It Were Static? 9 1.5 Can Human Intervention Affect Long-term Sustainability of Nature? 11 1.6 Can an Energy Source Be Isolated from Matter? 11 1.7 Is It Possible That Air, Water, and Earth Became Our Enemy? 13 1.8 The Difference Between Sustainable and Unsustainable Products 15 1.9 Can We Compare Diamonds with Enriched Uranium? 16 1.10 Is Zero-waste an Absurd Concept? 16 1.11 How Can We Determine Whether Natural Energy Sources Last Forever? 17 1.12 Can Doing Good Be Bad Business? 18 1.13 Greening of Petroleum Operations: A Fiction? 19 vii viii Contents 2 A Delinearized History of Civilization and the Science of Matter and Energy 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Fundamental Misconceptions of the Modern Age 27 2.2.1 Chemicals are Chemicals and Energy is Energy 27 2.2.2 If You Cannot See it, it Does Not Exist 33 2.2.3 Simulation Equals Emulation 35 2.2.4 Whatever Works is True 37 2.3 The Science of Intangibles 40 2.4 The Science of Matter and Energy 54 2.4.1 The European Knowledge Trail in Mass and Energy 58 2.4.2 Delinearized History of Mass and Energy Management in the Middle East 75 2.4.3 Accounting 89 2.4.4 Fundamental Science and Engineering 91 2.5 Paradigm Shift in Scientifi c and Engineering Calculations 96 2.6 Summary and Conclusions 101 3 Fundamentals of Mass and Energy Balance 105 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 The Difference Between a Natural Process and an Engineered Process 106 3.3 The Measurement Conundrum of the Phenomenon and its Observer 107 3.3.1 Background 107 3.3.2 Galileo’s Experimental Program: An Early Example of the Nature-Science Approach 116 3.4 Implications of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity on Newtonian Mechanics 121 3.5 Newton’s First Assumption 125 3.6 First Level of Rectifi cation of Newton’s First Assumption 131 3.7 Second Level of Rectifi cation of Newton’s First Assumption 133 3.8 Fundamental Assumptions of Electromagnetic Theory 137 Contents ix 3.9 Aims of Modeling Natural Phenomena 145 3.10 Challenges of Modeling Sustainable Petroleum Operations 147 3.11 Implications of a Knowledge-based Sustainability Analysis 150 3.11.1 A General Case 151 3.11.2 Impact of Global Warming Analysis 155 3.12 Concluding remarks 157 4 A True Sustainability Criterion and Its Implications 159 4.1 Introduction 159 4.2 Importance of the Sustainability Criterion 161 4.3 The Criterion: The Switch that Determines the Direction at a Bifurcation Point 164 4.3.1 Some Applications of the Criterion 167 4.4 Current Practices in Petroleum Engineering 172 4.4.1 Petroleum Operations Phases 172 4.4.2 Problems in Technological Development 176 4.5 Development of a Sustainable Model 179 4.6 Violation of Characteristic Time 180 4.7 Observation of Nature: Importance of Intangibles 181 4.8 Analogy of Physical Phenomena 186 4.9 Intangible Cause to Tangible Consequence 187 4.10 Removable Discontinuities: Phases and Renewability of Materials 188 4.11 Rebalancing Mass and Energy 189 4.12 Energy: The Current Model 191 4.12.1 Supplements of Mass Balance Equation 192 4.13 Tools Needed for Sustainable Petroleum Operations 194 4.14 Conditions of Sustainability 196 4.15 Sustainability Indicators 199 4.16 Assessing the Overall Performance of a Process 201 4.17 Inherent Features of a Comprehensive Criterion 211 5 Scientifi c Characterization of Global Energy Sources 215 5.1 Introduction 215 5.2 Global Energy Scenario 220 5.3 Solar Energy 224 5.4 Hydropower 226 x Contents 5.5 Ocean Thermal, Wave, and Tidal Energy 228 5.6 Wind Energy 228 5.7 Bio-energy 230 5.8 Fuelwood 231 5.9 Bioethanol 233 5.10 Biodiesel 235 5.11 Nuclear Power 236 5.12 Geothermal Energy 239 5.13 Hydrogen Energy 240 5.14 Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming 242 5.15 Nuclear Energy and Global Warming 243 5.16 Impact of Energy Technology and Policy 245 5.17 Energy Demand in Emerging Economies 247 5.18 Conventional Global Energy Model 248 5.19 Renewable vs. Non-renewable: No Boundary as Such 249 5.20 Knowledge-based Global Energy Model 253 5.21 Concluding Remarks 255 6 Scientifi c Characterization of Light and Light Sources 257 6.1 Introduction 257 6.2 Natural Light Source: The Sun 259 6.2.1 Sun Composition 259 6.2.2 Sun Microstructure 259 6.3 Artifi cial Light Sources 263 6.4 Pathways of Light 266 6.4.1 Natural Light 266 6.4.2 Artifi cial Light 267 6.5 Light Energy Model 267 6.6 Spectral Analysis of Light 269 6.6.1 Measured and Planck’s Model Light Spectra 271 6.6.2 Natural and Artifi cial Light Spectra 272 6.7 Effect of Lamp Coating on Light Spectra 276 6.8 Effect of Eyeglasses and Sunglasses on Light Spectra 278 6.9 Concluding Remarks 281 Contents xi 7 The Science of Global Warming 283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Historical Development 286 7.2.1 Pre-industrial 286 7.2.2 Industrial Age 287 7.2.3 Age of Petroleum 288 7.3 Current Status of Greenhouse Gas Emissions 289 7.4 Comments on Copenhagen Summit 296 7.4.1 Copenhagen Summit: The political implication 296 7.4.2 The Copenhagen ‘Agreement’ 298 7.5 Classifi cation of CO2 302 7.6 The Role of Water in Global Warming 304 7.7 Characterization of Energy Sources 308 7.8 The Kyoto Protocol 310 7.9 Sustainable Energy Development 314 7.10 Zero Waste Energy Systems 319 7.11 Reversing Global Warming: The Role of Technology Development 324 7.12 Deconstructing the Myth of Global Warming and Cooling 327 7.13 Concluding Remarks 333 8 Diverging Fates of Sustainable and Unsustainable Products 335 8.1 Introduction 335 8.2 Chemical Composition of Polyurethane Fiber 337 8.3 Biochemical Composition of Wool 339 8.4 Pathways of Polyurethane 343 8.5 Pathways of Wool 347 8.6 Degradation of Polyurethane 347 8.7 Degradation of Wools 348 8.8 Recycling Polyurethane Waste 351 8.9 Unsustainable Technologies 354 8.10 Toxic Compounds from Plastic 358 8.11 Environmental Impacts Issues 358 8.12 How Much is Known? 361 8.13 Concluding Remarks 365 xii Contents 9 Scientifi c Difference Between Sustainable and Unsustainable Processes 367 9.1 Introduction 367 9.1.1 Paraffi n Wax and Beeswax 368 9.1.2 Synthetic Plastic and Natural Plastic 370 9.2 Physical Properties of Beeswax and Paraffi n Wax 372 9.2.1 Paraffi n Wax 372 9.2.2 Beeswax 373 9.3 Microstructures of Beeswax and Paraffi n wax 375 9.4 Structural Analysis of Paraffi n Wax and Beeswax 380 9.5 Response to Uniaxial Compression 384 9.6 Ultrasonic Tests on Beeswax and Paraffi n Wax 390 9.7 Natural Plastic and Synthetic Plastic 394 9.8 Plastic Pathway from Crude Oil 395 9.9 Theoretical Comparison Between Nylon and Silk 396 9.10 Theoretical Comparison Between Synthetic Rubber and Latex (Natural Rubber) 400 9.11 Concluding Remarks 403 10 Comparison of Various Energy Production Schemes 405 10.1 Introduction 405 10.2 Inherent Features of a Comprehensive Criterion 407 10.3 The Need for a Multidimensional Study 407 10.4 Assessing the Overall Performance of a Process 410 10.5 Global Effi ciency of Solar Energy to Electricity Conversion 411 10.5.1 Photovoltaic Cells 411 10.5.2 Battery Life Cycle in PV System 412 10.5.3 Compact Fluorescent Lamp 414 10.5.4 Global Effi ciency of Direct Solar Application 415 10.5.5 Combined-Cycle Technology 420 10.5.6 Hydroelectricity to Electric Stove 421 10.6 Global Effi ciency of Biomass Energy 422 10.7 Global effi ciency of nuclear power 425 10.8 Discussion 426 10.9 Concluding remarks 428 Contents xiii 11 The Zero-Waste Concept and its Application to Petroleum Engineering 431 11.1 Introduction 431 11.2 Petroleum Refi ning 433 11.2.1 Zero-waste Refi ning Process 440 11.3 Zero Waste in Product Life Cycle (Transportation, Use, and End-of-Life) 450 11.4 No-Flaring Technique 451 11.4.1 Separation of Solid-Liquid 452 11.4.2 Separation of Liquid-Liquid 454 11.4.3 Separation of Gas-Gas 458 11.4.4 Overall Plan 460 12 Sustainable Refi ning and Gas Processing 463 12.1 Introduction 463 12.1.1 Refi ning 464 12.1.2 Natural Gas Processing 467 12.2 Pathways of Crude Oil Formation 469 12.3 Pathways of Crude Oil Refi ning 476 12.4 Additives in Oil Refi ning and Their Functions 479 12.4.1 Platinum 479 12.4.2 Cadmium 480 12.4.3 Lead 481 12.5 Emissions from Oil Refi ning Activities 481 12.6 Degradation of Crude and Refi ned Oil 483 12.7 Pathways of Natural Gas Processing 484 12.8 Oil and Condensate Removal from Gas Streams 486 12.9 Water Removal from Gas Streams 486 12.9.1 Glycol Dehydration 487 12.9.2 Solid-Desiccant Dehydration 488 12.10 Separation of Natural Gas Liquids 489 12.10.1 The Absorption Method 489 12.10.2 The Membrane Separation 490 12.10.3 The Cryogenic Expansion Process 490 12.11 Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal 491 12.11.1 Use of Membrane for Gas Processing 492 12.11.2 Nitrogen and Helium Removal 492 xiv Contents 12.12 Problems in Natural Gas Processing 493 12.12.1 Pathways of Glycols and Their Toxicity 493 12.12.2 Pathways of Amines and Their Toxicity 495 12.12.3 Toxicity of Polymer Membranes 496 12.13 Innovative Solutions for Natural Gas Processing 496 12.13.1 Clay as a Glycol Substitute for Water Vapor Absorption 496 12.13.2 Removal of CO2 Using Brine and Ammonia 499 12.13.3 CO2 Capture Using Regenerable Dry Sorbents 502 12.13.4 CO2 Capture Using Oxides and Silicates of Magnesium 502 12.13.5 H2S Removal Techniques 503 12.14 Concluding Remarks 505 13 Flow Assurance in Petroleum Fluids 507 13.1 Introduction 507 13.1.1 Hydrate Problems 508 13.1.2 Corrosion Problems in the Petroleum Industry 511 13.2 The Prevention of Hydrate Formation 513 13.2.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors 515 13.2.2 Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors 516 13.2.3 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors 520 13.2.4 Antiagglomerants (AA) 521 13.3 Problems with the Gas-processing Chemicals 522 13.4 Pathways of Chemical Additives 525 13.4.1 Ethylene Glycols (EG) 527 13.4.2 Methanol 527 13.4.3 Methyl Ethanol Amine (MEA) 528 13.4.4 Di-ethanol Amine (DEA) 529 13.4.5 Triethanolamine (TEA) 530 13.5 Sustainable Alternatives to Conventional Techniques for Hydrate Prevention 530 13.5.1 Sustainable Chemical Approach 532 13.5.2 Biological Approach 540 13.5.3 Direct Heating Using a Natural Heat Source 543 Contents xv 13.6 Mechanism of Microbially Induced Corrosion 545 13.7 Sustainable Approach to Corrosion Prevention 554 13.8 Asphaltene Problems and Sustainable Mitigation 567 13.8.1 Bacterial Solutions for Asphaltene and Wax Damage Prevention 569 14 Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery 577 14.1 Introduction 577 14.2 Chemical Flooding Agents 578 14.2.1 Toxicity of the Synthetic Alkalis 581 14.2.2 Alkalinity in Wood Ashes 584 14.2.3 Characterization of Maple Wood Ash Producing the Alkalinity 586 14.2.4 Alkalinity of Maple Wood Ash Extracted Solution 592 14.2.5 Feasibility Test of a Maple Wood Ash Extracted Solution for EOR Applications 594 14.2.6 Interfacial Tension (IFT) Equivalence 595 14.2.7 Environmental Sustainability of Wood Ash Usage 598 14.2.8 The Use of Soap Nuts for Alkali Extraction 600 14.3 Rendering CO2 Injection Sustainable 600 14.3.1 Miscible CO2 Injection 603 14.3.2 Immiscible CO2 Injection 607 14.3.3 EOR Through Greenhouse Gas Injection 609 14.3.4 Sour Gas Injection for EOR 611 14.3.5 Viscous Fingering 612 14.3.6 Design of Existing EOR Projects 613 14.3.7 Concluding Remarks 616 14.4 A Novel Microbial Technique 616 14.4.1 Introduction 616 14.4.2 Some Results 621 14.4.3 Concluding Remarks 629 14.5 Humanizing EOR Practices 632 xvi Contents 15 The Knowledge Economics 635 15.1 Introduction 635 15.2 The Economics of Sustainable Engineering 635 15.2.1 Insuffi ciency of Current Models: The Analogy of the Colony Collapse Disorder 636 15.2.2 Insuffi ciency of Energy Economics Theories 645 15.2.3 Jevons’ Paradox 654 15.2.4 The “Marginal Revolution” as a Legacy of Utilitarian Philosophy 657 15.2.5 What is Anti-nature About Current Modes of Economic Development? 660 15.2.6 The Problem with Taxing (Carbon Tax or Otherwise) 661 15.3 The New Synthesis 663 15.3.1 Understanding the History of Reversals of Fortune 665 15.3.2 True Sustainability is Conforming with Nature 671 15.3.3 Knowledge for Whom? 677 15.3.4 The Knowledge Dimension and How Disinformation is Distilled 680 15.4 A Case of Zero-waste Engineering 684 15.4.1 Economic Evaluation of Key Units of Zero-waste Scheme 686 15.4.2 A New Approach to Energy Characterization 692 15.4.3 Final Words 697 16 Deconstruction of Engineering Myths Prevalent in the Energy Sector 699 16.1 Introduction 699 16.1.1 How Leeches Fell out of Favor 699 16.1.2 When did carbon become the enemy? 707 16.2 The Sustainable Biofuel Fantasy 709 16.2.1 Current Myths Regarding Biofuel 710 16.2.2 Problems with Biodiesel Sources 711 Contents xvii 16.2.3 The Current Process of Biodiesel Production 713 16.3 “Clean” Nuclear Energy 720 16.3.1 Energy Demand in Emerging Economies and Nuclear Power 720 16.3.2 Nuclear Research Reactors 720 16.3.3 Global Estimated Uranium Resources 722 16.3.4 Nuclear Reactor Technologies 722 16.3.5 Sustainability of Nuclear Energy 724 16.3.6 Global Effi ciency of Nuclear Energy 736 16.3.7 Energy from Nuclear Fusion 736 17 Greening of Petroleum Operations 739 17.1 Introduction 739 17.2 Issues in Petroleum Operations 741 17.3 Pathway Analysis of Crude and Refi ned Oil and Gas 742 17.4 Critical Evaluation of Current Petroleum Practices 742 17.5 Management 744 17.6 Current Practices in Exploration, Drilling, and Production 746 17.7 Challenges in Waste Management 749 17.8 Problems in Transportation Operations 750 17.9 Greening of Petroleum Operations 752 17.9.1 Effective Separation of Solid from Liquid, gas from liquid, and gas from gas 752 17.9.2 Natural Substitutes for Gas Processing Chemicals (Glycol and Amines) 752 17.9.3 Membranes and Absorbents 753 17.9.4 A Novel Desalination Technique 756 17.9.5 A Novel Refi ning Technique 757 17.9.6 Use of Solid Acid Catalyst for Alkylation 757 17.9.7 Use of Nature-based or Non-toxic Catalyst 758 xviii Contents 17.9.8 Use of Bacteria to Break Down Heavier Hydrocarbons 758 17.9.9 Zero-waste Approach 758 17.9.10 Use of Cleaner Crude Oil 758 17.9.11 Use of Gravity Separation Systems 761 17.10 Concluding Remarks 761 18 Conclusion 763 18.1 Introduction 763 18.2 The HSS®A® (Honey → Sugar → Saccharin®→Aspartame®) Pathway 764 18.3 HSS®A® Pathway in Energy Management 770 18.4 The Conclusions 772 Appendix 1 Origin of Atomic Theory as Viewed by the European Scientists 775 Appendix 2 Nobel Prize in Physics (2008) given for discovering breakdown of symmetry 789 References and Bibliography 795 Index 847
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Foreword xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Science of Change: How Will Our Epoch Be Remembered? 1 1.2 Are Natural Resources Finite and Human Needs Infinite? 2 1.3 The Standard of Sustainable Engineering 4 1.4 Can Nature Be Treated as If It Were Static? 9 1.5 Can Human Intervention Affect Long-term Sustainability of Nature? 11 1.6 Can an Energy Source Be Isolated from Matter? 11 1.7 Is It Possible That Air, Water, and Earth Became Our Enemy? 13 1.8 The Difference Between Sustainable and Unsustainable Products 15 1.9 Can We Compare Diamonds with Enriched Uranium? 16 1.10 Is Zero-waste an Absurd Concept? 16 1.11 How Can We Determine Whether Natural Energy Sources Last Forever? 17 1.12 Can Doing Good Be Bad Business? 18 1.13 Greening of Petroleum Operations: A Fiction? 19 vii viii Contents 2 A Delinearized History of Civilization and the Science of Matter and Energy 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Fundamental Misconceptions of the Modern Age 27 2.2.1 Chemicals are Chemicals and Energy is Energy 27 2.2.2 If You Cannot See it, it Does Not Exist 33 2.2.3 Simulation Equals Emulation 35 2.2.4 Whatever Works is True 37 2.3 The Science of Intangibles 40 2.4 The Science of Matter and Energy 54 2.4.1 The European Knowledge Trail in Mass and Energy 58 2.4.2 Delinearized History of Mass and Energy Management in the Middle East 75 2.4.3 Accounting 89 2.4.4 Fundamental Science and Engineering 91 2.5 Paradigm Shift in Scientifi c and Engineering Calculations 96 2.6 Summary and Conclusions 101 3 Fundamentals of Mass and Energy Balance 105 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 The Difference Between a Natural Process and an Engineered Process 106 3.3 The Measurement Conundrum of the Phenomenon and its Observer 107 3.3.1 Background 107 3.3.2 Galileo’s Experimental Program: An Early Example of the Nature-Science Approach 116 3.4 Implications of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity on Newtonian Mechanics 121 3.5 Newton’s First Assumption 125 3.6 First Level of Rectifi cation of Newton’s First Assumption 131 3.7 Second Level of Rectifi cation of Newton’s First Assumption 133 3.8 Fundamental Assumptions of Electromagnetic Theory 137 Contents ix 3.9 Aims of Modeling Natural Phenomena 145 3.10 Challenges of Modeling Sustainable Petroleum Operations 147 3.11 Implications of a Knowledge-based Sustainability Analysis 150 3.11.1 A General Case 151 3.11.2 Impact of Global Warming Analysis 155 3.12 Concluding remarks 157 4 A True Sustainability Criterion and Its Implications 159 4.1 Introduction 159 4.2 Importance of the Sustainability Criterion 161 4.3 The Criterion: The Switch that Determines the Direction at a Bifurcation Point 164 4.3.1 Some Applications of the Criterion 167 4.4 Current Practices in Petroleum Engineering 172 4.4.1 Petroleum Operations Phases 172 4.4.2 Problems in Technological Development 176 4.5 Development of a Sustainable Model 179 4.6 Violation of Characteristic Time 180 4.7 Observation of Nature: Importance of Intangibles 181 4.8 Analogy of Physical Phenomena 186 4.9 Intangible Cause to Tangible Consequence 187 4.10 Removable Discontinuities: Phases and Renewability of Materials 188 4.11 Rebalancing Mass and Energy 189 4.12 Energy: The Current Model 191 4.12.1 Supplements of Mass Balance Equation 192 4.13 Tools Needed for Sustainable Petroleum Operations 194 4.14 Conditions of Sustainability 196 4.15 Sustainability Indicators 199 4.16 Assessing the Overall Performance of a Process 201 4.17 Inherent Features of a Comprehensive Criterion 211 5 Scientifi c Characterization of Global Energy Sources 215 5.1 Introduction 215 5.2 Global Energy Scenario 220 5.3 Solar Energy 224 5.4 Hydropower 226 x Contents 5.5 Ocean Thermal, Wave, and Tidal Energy 228 5.6 Wind Energy 228 5.7 Bio-energy 230 5.8 Fuelwood 231 5.9 Bioethanol 233 5.10 Biodiesel 235 5.11 Nuclear Power 236 5.12 Geothermal Energy 239 5.13 Hydrogen Energy 240 5.14 Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming 242 5.15 Nuclear Energy and Global Warming 243 5.16 Impact of Energy Technology and Policy 245 5.17 Energy Demand in Emerging Economies 247 5.18 Conventional Global Energy Model 248 5.19 Renewable vs. Non-renewable: No Boundary as Such 249 5.20 Knowledge-based Global Energy Model 253 5.21 Concluding Remarks 255 6 Scientifi c Characterization of Light and Light Sources 257 6.1 Introduction 257 6.2 Natural Light Source: The Sun 259 6.2.1 Sun Composition 259 6.2.2 Sun Microstructure 259 6.3 Artifi cial Light Sources 263 6.4 Pathways of Light 266 6.4.1 Natural Light 266 6.4.2 Artifi cial Light 267 6.5 Light Energy Model 267 6.6 Spectral Analysis of Light 269 6.6.1 Measured and Planck’s Model Light Spectra 271 6.6.2 Natural and Artifi cial Light Spectra 272 6.7 Effect of Lamp Coating on Light Spectra 276 6.8 Effect of Eyeglasses and Sunglasses on Light Spectra 278 6.9 Concluding Remarks 281 Contents xi 7 The Science of Global Warming 283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Historical Development 286 7.2.1 Pre-industrial 286 7.2.2 Industrial Age 287 7.2.3 Age of Petroleum 288 7.3 Current Status of Greenhouse Gas Emissions 289 7.4 Comments on Copenhagen Summit 296 7.4.1 Copenhagen Summit: The political implication 296 7.4.2 The Copenhagen ‘Agreement’ 298 7.5 Classifi cation of CO2 302 7.6 The Role of Water in Global Warming 304 7.7 Characterization of Energy Sources 308 7.8 The Kyoto Protocol 310 7.9 Sustainable Energy Development 314 7.10 Zero Waste Energy Systems 319 7.11 Reversing Global Warming: The Role of Technology Development 324 7.12 Deconstructing the Myth of Global Warming and Cooling 327 7.13 Concluding Remarks 333 8 Diverging Fates of Sustainable and Unsustainable Products 335 8.1 Introduction 335 8.2 Chemical Composition of Polyurethane Fiber 337 8.3 Biochemical Composition of Wool 339 8.4 Pathways of Polyurethane 343 8.5 Pathways of Wool 347 8.6 Degradation of Polyurethane 347 8.7 Degradation of Wools 348 8.8 Recycling Polyurethane Waste 351 8.9 Unsustainable Technologies 354 8.10 Toxic Compounds from Plastic 358 8.11 Environmental Impacts Issues 358 8.12 How Much is Known? 361 8.13 Concluding Remarks 365 xii Contents 9 Scientifi c Difference Between Sustainable and Unsustainable Processes 367 9.1 Introduction 367 9.1.1 Paraffi n Wax and Beeswax 368 9.1.2 Synthetic Plastic and Natural Plastic 370 9.2 Physical Properties of Beeswax and Paraffi n Wax 372 9.2.1 Paraffi n Wax 372 9.2.2 Beeswax 373 9.3 Microstructures of Beeswax and Paraffi n wax 375 9.4 Structural Analysis of Paraffi n Wax and Beeswax 380 9.5 Response to Uniaxial Compression 384 9.6 Ultrasonic Tests on Beeswax and Paraffi n Wax 390 9.7 Natural Plastic and Synthetic Plastic 394 9.8 Plastic Pathway from Crude Oil 395 9.9 Theoretical Comparison Between Nylon and Silk 396 9.10 Theoretical Comparison Between Synthetic Rubber and Latex (Natural Rubber) 400 9.11 Concluding Remarks 403 10 Comparison of Various Energy Production Schemes 405 10.1 Introduction 405 10.2 Inherent Features of a Comprehensive Criterion 407 10.3 The Need for a Multidimensional Study 407 10.4 Assessing the Overall Performance of a Process 410 10.5 Global Effi ciency of Solar Energy to Electricity Conversion 411 10.5.1 Photovoltaic Cells 411 10.5.2 Battery Life Cycle in PV System 412 10.5.3 Compact Fluorescent Lamp 414 10.5.4 Global Effi ciency of Direct Solar Application 415 10.5.5 Combined-Cycle Technology 420 10.5.6 Hydroelectricity to Electric Stove 421 10.6 Global Effi ciency of Biomass Energy 422 10.7 Global effi ciency of nuclear power 425 10.8 Discussion 426 10.9 Concluding remarks 428 Contents xiii 11 The Zero-Waste Concept and its Application to Petroleum Engineering 431 11.1 Introduction 431 11.2 Petroleum Refi ning 433 11.2.1 Zero-waste Refi ning Process 440 11.3 Zero Waste in Product Life Cycle (Transportation, Use, and End-of-Life) 450 11.4 No-Flaring Technique 451 11.4.1 Separation of Solid-Liquid 452 11.4.2 Separation of Liquid-Liquid 454 11.4.3 Separation of Gas-Gas 458 11.4.4 Overall Plan 460 12 Sustainable Refi ning and Gas Processing 463 12.1 Introduction 463 12.1.1 Refi ning 464 12.1.2 Natural Gas Processing 467 12.2 Pathways of Crude Oil Formation 469 12.3 Pathways of Crude Oil Refi ning 476 12.4 Additives in Oil Refi ning and Their Functions 479 12.4.1 Platinum 479 12.4.2 Cadmium 480 12.4.3 Lead 481 12.5 Emissions from Oil Refi ning Activities 481 12.6 Degradation of Crude and Refi ned Oil 483 12.7 Pathways of Natural Gas Processing 484 12.8 Oil and Condensate Removal from Gas Streams 486 12.9 Water Removal from Gas Streams 486 12.9.1 Glycol Dehydration 487 12.9.2 Solid-Desiccant Dehydration 488 12.10 Separation of Natural Gas Liquids 489 12.10.1 The Absorption Method 489 12.10.2 The Membrane Separation 490 12.10.3 The Cryogenic Expansion Process 490 12.11 Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal 491 12.11.1 Use of Membrane for Gas Processing 492 12.11.2 Nitrogen and Helium Removal 492 xiv Contents 12.12 Problems in Natural Gas Processing 493 12.12.1 Pathways of Glycols and Their Toxicity 493 12.12.2 Pathways of Amines and Their Toxicity 495 12.12.3 Toxicity of Polymer Membranes 496 12.13 Innovative Solutions for Natural Gas Processing 496 12.13.1 Clay as a Glycol Substitute for Water Vapor Absorption 496 12.13.2 Removal of CO2 Using Brine and Ammonia 499 12.13.3 CO2 Capture Using Regenerable Dry Sorbents 502 12.13.4 CO2 Capture Using Oxides and Silicates of Magnesium 502 12.13.5 H2S Removal Techniques 503 12.14 Concluding Remarks 505 13 Flow Assurance in Petroleum Fluids 507 13.1 Introduction 507 13.1.1 Hydrate Problems 508 13.1.2 Corrosion Problems in the Petroleum Industry 511 13.2 The Prevention of Hydrate Formation 513 13.2.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors 515 13.2.2 Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors 516 13.2.3 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors 520 13.2.4 Antiagglomerants (AA) 521 13.3 Problems with the Gas-processing Chemicals 522 13.4 Pathways of Chemical Additives 525 13.4.1 Ethylene Glycols (EG) 527 13.4.2 Methanol 527 13.4.3 Methyl Ethanol Amine (MEA) 528 13.4.4 Di-ethanol Amine (DEA) 529 13.4.5 Triethanolamine (TEA) 530 13.5 Sustainable Alternatives to Conventional Techniques for Hydrate Prevention 530 13.5.1 Sustainable Chemical Approach 532 13.5.2 Biological Approach 540 13.5.3 Direct Heating Using a Natural Heat Source 543 Contents xv 13.6 Mechanism of Microbially Induced Corrosion 545 13.7 Sustainable Approach to Corrosion Prevention 554 13.8 Asphaltene Problems and Sustainable Mitigation 567 13.8.1 Bacterial Solutions for Asphaltene and Wax Damage Prevention 569 14 Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery 577 14.1 Introduction 577 14.2 Chemical Flooding Agents 578 14.2.1 Toxicity of the Synthetic Alkalis 581 14.2.2 Alkalinity in Wood Ashes 584 14.2.3 Characterization of Maple Wood Ash Producing the Alkalinity 586 14.2.4 Alkalinity of Maple Wood Ash Extracted Solution 592 14.2.5 Feasibility Test of a Maple Wood Ash Extracted Solution for EOR Applications 594 14.2.6 Interfacial Tension (IFT) Equivalence 595 14.2.7 Environmental Sustainability of Wood Ash Usage 598 14.2.8 The Use of Soap Nuts for Alkali Extraction 600 14.3 Rendering CO2 Injection Sustainable 600 14.3.1 Miscible CO2 Injection 603 14.3.2 Immiscible CO2 Injection 607 14.3.3 EOR Through Greenhouse Gas Injection 609 14.3.4 Sour Gas Injection for EOR 611 14.3.5 Viscous Fingering 612 14.3.6 Design of Existing EOR Projects 613 14.3.7 Concluding Remarks 616 14.4 A Novel Microbial Technique 616 14.4.1 Introduction 616 14.4.2 Some Results 621 14.4.3 Concluding Remarks 629 14.5 Humanizing EOR Practices 632 xvi Contents 15 The Knowledge Economics 635 15.1 Introduction 635 15.2 The Economics of Sustainable Engineering 635 15.2.1 Insuffi ciency of Current Models: The Analogy of the Colony Collapse Disorder 636 15.2.2 Insuffi ciency of Energy Economics Theories 645 15.2.3 Jevons’ Paradox 654 15.2.4 The “Marginal Revolution” as a Legacy of Utilitarian Philosophy 657 15.2.5 What is Anti-nature About Current Modes of Economic Development? 660 15.2.6 The Problem with Taxing (Carbon Tax or Otherwise) 661 15.3 The New Synthesis 663 15.3.1 Understanding the History of Reversals of Fortune 665 15.3.2 True Sustainability is Conforming with Nature 671 15.3.3 Knowledge for Whom? 677 15.3.4 The Knowledge Dimension and How Disinformation is Distilled 680 15.4 A Case of Zero-waste Engineering 684 15.4.1 Economic Evaluation of Key Units of Zero-waste Scheme 686 15.4.2 A New Approach to Energy Characterization 692 15.4.3 Final Words 697 16 Deconstruction of Engineering Myths Prevalent in the Energy Sector 699 16.1 Introduction 699 16.1.1 How Leeches Fell out of Favor 699 16.1.2 When did carbon become the enemy? 707 16.2 The Sustainable Biofuel Fantasy 709 16.2.1 Current Myths Regarding Biofuel 710 16.2.2 Problems with Biodiesel Sources 711 Contents xvii 16.2.3 The Current Process of Biodiesel Production 713 16.3 “Clean” Nuclear Energy 720 16.3.1 Energy Demand in Emerging Economies and Nuclear Power 720 16.3.2 Nuclear Research Reactors 720 16.3.3 Global Estimated Uranium Resources 722 16.3.4 Nuclear Reactor Technologies 722 16.3.5 Sustainability of Nuclear Energy 724 16.3.6 Global Effi ciency of Nuclear Energy 736 16.3.7 Energy from Nuclear Fusion 736 17 Greening of Petroleum Operations 739 17.1 Introduction 739 17.2 Issues in Petroleum Operations 741 17.3 Pathway Analysis of Crude and Refi ned Oil and Gas 742 17.4 Critical Evaluation of Current Petroleum Practices 742 17.5 Management 744 17.6 Current Practices in Exploration, Drilling, and Production 746 17.7 Challenges in Waste Management 749 17.8 Problems in Transportation Operations 750 17.9 Greening of Petroleum Operations 752 17.9.1 Effective Separation of Solid from Liquid, gas from liquid, and gas from gas 752 17.9.2 Natural Substitutes for Gas Processing Chemicals (Glycol and Amines) 752 17.9.3 Membranes and Absorbents 753 17.9.4 A Novel Desalination Technique 756 17.9.5 A Novel Refi ning Technique 757 17.9.6 Use of Solid Acid Catalyst for Alkylation 757 17.9.7 Use of Nature-based or Non-toxic Catalyst 758 xviii Contents 17.9.8 Use of Bacteria to Break Down Heavier Hydrocarbons 758 17.9.9 Zero-waste Approach 758 17.9.10 Use of Cleaner Crude Oil 758 17.9.11 Use of Gravity Separation Systems 761 17.10 Concluding Remarks 761 18 Conclusion 763 18.1 Introduction 763 18.2 The HSS®A® (Honey → Sugar → Saccharin®→Aspartame®) Pathway 764 18.3 HSS®A® Pathway in Energy Management 770 18.4 The Conclusions 772 Appendix 1 Origin of Atomic Theory as Viewed by the European Scientists 775 Appendix 2 Nobel Prize in Physics (2008) given for discovering breakdown of symmetry 789 References and Bibliography 795 Index 847
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BISAC SUBJECT HEADINGS
TEC047000: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Petroleum
TEC031030: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Fossil Fuels
TEC010000: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Environmental / General
BIC CODES
THFP: Petroleum technology
RNU: Sustainability
THF: Fossil fuel technology
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